• An analogy is a comparison between two things that share many similarities. Analogies can help clarify an unfamiliar or complex topic by comparing it to a more familiar or recognizable topic.

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How human memory functions is similar to how a computer functions. Short-term memory, which only contains the current moments that someone is experiencing, is like a computer's random access memory (RAM), which only records what is currently on the computer screen. Other short term memories grow through a process called "consolidation," which converts them into long-term memories that can be pulled up and recalled. This is similar to how someone chooses to save a file to their hard drive, which can then be found and opened again.

The example uses an analogy by comparing human memory to a computer. The writer can help a person who is unfamiliar with how memory works understand the concept more easily by relating actions that people have experience with, such as working on a computer.

• Juxtaposition refers to placing two situations or ideas next to one another to point out their similarities, differences, or other related attributes. Authors often use juxtaposition to highlight specific ideas or make certain points.

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You may have seen videos online where people are cuddling or play-wrestling with big cats, like lions, tigers, or cougars. Many people enjoy these videos and may even wish that they could participate in something similar. Unfortunately, those popular videos do not accurately reflect what real life would be like. If you come across a big cat in the wild or even just at the zoo, it is more likely to attack you than play with you. Lions and tigers are powerful and dangerous creatures that can easily harm people, even if it's just accidentally.

The example juxtaposes two experiences with big cats to show that there is a difference between what people assume will happen and what actually happens instead. Based on popular videos, people might believe that it is easy to play with big cats, but in reality, they are more likely to get hurt than anything else.

• Bandwagon appeal refers to the idea that you should believe in, support, or do something just because many other people do.

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An advertisement for toothpaste says, "Millions of Americans have made the switch to the brand that guarantees a bigger, brighter smile!"

In the example, the advertisement does not provide any supporting evidence about the effectiveness of the toothpaste. Instead, it relies on bandwagon appeal to make its argument; if millions of people have switched to the toothpaste, shouldn't you switch as well?

• Repetition refers to claims that are repeated over and over in a text. It is based on the idea that a claim must be true if it is said again and again, even without supporting evidence.

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Debate Transcript:

CANDIDATE 1: Texas schools are the highest ranked schools in the nation.

DEBATE MODERATOR: I do believe that Massachusetts has the highest ranked schools, based on most objective ranking systems.

CANDIDATE 1: That's ridiculous. Texas schools are number 1 in the nation.

CANDIDATE 2: (interrupting) Excuse me, but on the most recent U.S. News and World Report rankings, Texas was Number 37. That's one reason why we need to invest more in our public education system.

CANDIDATE 1: That's simply not accurate. Texas has the best public schools in the nation!

CANDIDATE 2: (stops arguing)

DEBATE MODERATOR: Moving on to our next topic . . .

In the example, Candidate 1 keeps repeating the claim that Texas schools are the best in the nation without providing any evidence. The claim is repeated until the other candidate merely stops arguing.

• Circular reasoning occurs when a conclusion is based on a premise that was itself drawn from the conclusion.

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Fluoride should continue to be added to all municipal water supplies because it is good for people’s dental health. It is obviously good for people’s dental health because we have been putting it in municipal water supplies for years, and why else would we have done so?

A: Fluoride should continue to be put into municipal water supplies.
B: Fluoride is good for people's dental health.
B: Fluoride is good for people's dental health because . . .
A: We've been putting fluoride into municipal water supplies for years,
     so it must be good!